Photo Credit: http://www.epa.gov/region9/superfund/navajo-nation/images/water-hauling-station-in-Ganado-lg.jpg
Project Purpose
The purpose of this project is to provide a design for a low-cost, electricity-free water filtration unit capable of reducing uranium, arsenic, and coliforms to concentrations at or below their Maximum Contaminant Limits, as established by the United States EPA, in order to provide safe drinking water to the residents of the former Bennett Freeze Area (BFA) of the Navajo Nation.
This project serves the residents of the former BFA and the project client, Forgotten People, which is a non-profit organization that advocates for the well-being of the residents of the former BFA by coordinating with other organizations interested in infrastructure development projects within the region.
Problem Statement
The 2 million acre area on the Navajo Nation known as the former BFA is occupied by approximately 20,000 individuals residing in an estimated 3,688 homes. Of the 3,688 homes, it is estimated that 2,685 (72.8%) do not have access to a regulated public water supply (Navajo Access Workgroup, 2010). Resident and client testimony support the assumption that most families residing in the former BFA obtain drinking water from unregulated water sources. Unregulated water sources include groundwater wells, surface water deposits, springs, and man-made livestock tanks (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2000). This use of unregulated water supplies presents a problem for residents. Due to a combination of naturally occurring uranium deposits and abandoned uranium mines, many unregulated water sources have concentrations of uranium exceeding the MCL. Extensive uranium mining on the Navajo Nation occurred from the mid to late 1900s, and although these operations have since ceased, a legacy of uranium contamination exists in the area, including the BFA. Two remote wells at Tohatchi Springs and Badger Springs present serious risks, and they are the closest available water sources for residents in the Blackfalls region of the BFA (Ingram, 2011). Unregulated water sources have also shown elevated concentrations of arsenic above the MCL from natural sources and tested positive for coliforms (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 2000). Current USEPA MCLs for uranium, arsenic, and total coliform bacteria are 30 µg/L, 10 µg/L, and less than five percent of samples testing positive for coliforms per month, respectively (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2013). Therefore, residents of the BFA are potentially drinking water containing three contaminants of concern (COCs), uranium, arsenic, and coliforms.
There are significant health risks for humans that drink water containing uranium, arsenic, and coliforms above their MCLs. Health risks associated with consuming water with uranium concentrations above the MCL include an increased risk of cancer and kidney toxicity. Health risks associated with arsenic concentrations above the MCL include circulatory system damage, skin damage, and increased cancer risk. Health risks associated with consuming water containing coliforms can vary as the presence of coliforms is utilized as an indicator for the existence of a variety of microbial pathogens. The effects of these pathogens may include acute and/or chronic gastric and respiratory illnesses (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2013). In order to reduce the health risks associated with the drinking of contaminated unregulated water sources in the former BFA, it is necessary to assure the inhabitants of the area have access to water with concentrations of uranium, arsenic, and coliforms below USEPA MCL standards. More information about health risks related to uranium, arsenic and coliforms can be found in section 6.1 Impacts of Final Design in the Final Report.
Project Location
The former BFA consists of approximately 1.5 million acres (Navajo Access Workgroup, 2010). The area is named after past Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Robert Bennett. The Navajo and Hopi Settlement Act, Public Law 93-531, defines the borders of the area and the developmental restrictions imposed on its inhabitants. PL 93-531 defines the BFA as: “that portion of the Navajo Reservation lying west of the Executive Order Reservation of 1882 and bounded on the north and south by westerly extensions, to the reservation line, of the northern and southern boundaries of said Executive Order Reservation” (The 93rd Congress of the United States of America, 1966). There are few maps of the BFA in existence. The map in Figure 1 shows the BFA as determined by the U.S. General Accounting Office’s Navajo-Hopi Resettlement Program in March 1991. A more detailed map is shown in Figure 2 , where the BFA is outlined in red, and a red arrow points to Flagstaff, Arizona.
Figure 1: Map of the Bennett Freeze area, as determined by the U.S. General Accounting Office’s Navajo-Hopi Resettlement Program
Figure 2: Map of the Bennett Freeze area, as shown by the area outlined in red
The developmental restrictions placed on the residents of the BFA prohibited: “any new construction or improvement to the property and further includes public work projects, power and water lines, public agency improvements, and associated rights-of-way” (The 93rd Congress of the United States of America, 1966). The intention of PL 93-531 was to prevent development of the BFA until a land dispute between the Hopi and Navajo Nations could be settled. Unfortunately, the 43 year-long developmental freeze resulted in dire social and economic consequences for residents in the BFA; consequences exacerbated by an absence of infrastructure. Although the land dispute has not been resolved, PL 93-531 section 10(f), which prohibited development was repealed via PL 111-18 in 2009 (The 111th Congress of The United States of America, 2009). The repeal of PL 93-531 10(f) allows for the development of property and infrastructure to resume. Despite this, little progress in terms of drinking water infrastructure has been made.
References
The 93rd Congress of the United States of America. (1966). Navajo and Hopi Settlement Act - Public Law 93-531 (as amended). Title 25 U.S.C.A Chapter 14 Subchapter XXII.
The 111th Congress of The United States of America. (2009). Public Law 111-18 0 May 8, 2009. In Congressional Record (Vol. 155).
Navajo Access Workgroup. (2010, October). Mapping of Water Infrastructure and Homes Without Access to Safe Drinking Water and Basic Sanitation on the Navajo Nation. Retrieved September 18, 2013, from http://www.epa.gov/tp/pdf/infra-navajo-nation-summary.pdf
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. (2000). Abandoned Uranium Mines Project Arizona, New Mexico, Utah - Navajo Lands 1994-2000 Project Atlas.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2013, June 03). Drinking Water Contamination | US EPA . Retrieved September 18, 2013, from United States Environmental Protection Agency: http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm
Environmental Design Contest - 2014. (2013, August 22). Retrieved from New Mexico State Univeristy Institute for Energy & the Environment: http://www.ieenmsu.com/werc-2/design-contest-2014/